Upper ocean heat and freshwater budgets

Heat and freshwater in the upper ocean, and their transport by currents, are critical components of the climate system. The heat budget of the upper ocean is largely determined by the absorption solar radiation and air-sea exchanges of heat, including infrared radiation. The freshwater budget is controlled by evaporation and precipitation over the global oceans and freshwater input from rivers. Determining the heat and freshwater budgets from research ships and autonomous vehicles, and surface salinity derived from satellite microwave radiometers, are described. The intensification of severe storms is given as an application of knowledge of the upper ocean heat content.